Alcohol
Volume 20, Issue 3 , Pages 263-269 , April 2000

Abuse and therapeutic potential of gamma-hydroxybutyric acid

  • G.P Galloway

      Affiliations

    • Drug Detoxification, Rehabilitation, and Aftercare Program, Haight-Ashbury Free Clinics, 603 Clayton Street, San Francisco, CA 94117, USA
    • Department of Clinical Pharmacy, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
    • Corresponding Author InformationCorresponding author. Tel.: 415-487-3678; fax: 415-487-1081.(G.P. Galloway)
  • ,
  • S.L Frederick-Osborne

      Affiliations

    • Drug Detoxification, Rehabilitation, and Aftercare Program, Haight-Ashbury Free Clinics, 603 Clayton Street, San Francisco, CA 94117, USA
  • ,
  • Richard Seymour

      Affiliations

    • Office of the President, Haight-Asbury Free Clinics, 612 Clayton Street, San Francisco, CA 94117, USA
  • ,
  • Sarah E Contini

      Affiliations

    • Office of the President, Haight-Asbury Free Clinics, 612 Clayton Street, San Francisco, CA 94117, USA
  • ,
  • David E Smith

      Affiliations

    • Office of the President, Haight-Asbury Free Clinics, 612 Clayton Street, San Francisco, CA 94117, USA
    • Institute of Health and Aging, University of California, San Francisco, CA USA

Received 8 July 1998 ,Revised 3 June 1999 ,Accepted 16 June 1999.

References 

  1. Addolorato G, Caputo F, Capristo E, Stefanini GF, Gasbarrini G. Gamma-hydroxybutyric acid (efficacy, potential abuse, and dependence in the treatment of alcohol addiction). Alcohol. 2000;20:217–222
  2. Anonymous . GHB follows ketamine as UK rave scene embraces downer drugs. Druglink. 1994;9:5
  3. Anonymous . Alta Vista. http://www.damicon.fi/drugs/depressants/ghb 1997;
  4. Beghè F, Carpanini MT. Safety and tolerability of gamma-hydroxybutyric acid in the treatment of alcohol dependent patients. Alcohol. 2000;20:223–225
  5. Benavides J, Rumigny J, Bourguignon J, Wermouth C, Mandel P, Maitre M. A high-affinity, Na+-dependent uptake system for gamma-hydroxybutyrate in membrane vesicles prepared from rat brain. J Neurochem. 1982;38:1570–1575
  6. Cash CD. Gamma-hydroxybutyrate (an overview of the pros and cons for it being a neurotransmitter and/or a useful therapeutic agent). Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 1994;18:291–304
  7. Chin MY, Kreutzer RA, Dyer JE. Acute poisoning from gamma-hydroxybutyrate in California. West J Med. 1992;156:380–384
  8. Colombo G, Agabio R, Lobina C, Reali R, Fadda F, Gessa GL. Cross-tolerance to ethanol and gamma-hydroxybutyric acid. Eur J Pharmacol. 1995;273:235–238
  9. Colombo G, Agabio R, Diaz G, Fà M, Lobina C, Reali R, et al. Gamma-hydroxybutyric acid intake in ethanol-preferring sP and -nonpreferring sNP rats. Physiol Behav. 1998;64:197–202
  10. Crosby G, Ito M, Kaufman E, Nelson T, Sokoloff L. Naloxone pretreatment alters the local cerebral metabolic effect of gamma-hydroxybutyrate in rats. Brain Res. 1983;275:194–197
  11. Diana M, Mereu G, Mura A, Fadda F, Passino N, Gessa GL. Low doses of gamma-hydroxybutyric acid stimulate the firing rate of dopaminergic neurons in unanesthetized rats. Brain Res. 1991;566:208–211
  12. Dyer JE. Gamma-hydroxybutyrate (a health-food product producing coma and seizurelike activity). Am J Emerg Med. 1991;9:321–324
  13. Dyer J, Kreutzer R, Quattrone A, Kizer K, Geller R, Smith J, et al. Multistate outbreak of poisonings associated with illicit use of gamma hydroxy butyrate. Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 1990;39:861–863
  14. Einspruch BC, Clark SM. Near fatality results from health food store sleeping potion. Tex Med. 1992;88:10;[letter]
  15. Ellinwood EJ, Gonzalez AE, Dougherty GJ. Gamma-butyrolactone effects on behavior induced by dopamine agonists. Biol Psychiatry. 1983;18:1023–1032
  16. El-Sohly, M. A., Kopycki, W. J., Feng, S., Murphy, T. P., Armstrong, R., & Salamone, S. J. (1997). Analysis of flunitrazepam metabolites and other substances in alleged cases of sexual assault. American Academy of Forensic Sciences Meeting, San Francisco, CA, McCormick-Armstrong.
  17. Feigenbaum JJ, Simantov R. Lack of effect of gamma-hydroxybutyrate on mu, delta and kappa opioid receptor binding. Neurosci Lett. 1996;212:5–8
  18. Ferrara SD, Zotti S, Tedeschi L, Frison G, Castagna F, Gallimberti L, et al. Pharmacokinetics of gamma-hydroxybutyric acid in alcohol dependent patients after single and repeated oral doses. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 1992;34:231–235
  19. Ferrara SD, Tedeschi L, Frison G, Rossi A. Fatality due to gamma-hydroxybutyric acid (GHB) and heroin intoxication. J For Sci. 1995;40:501–504
  20. Frau M, Colombo G, Marchese G, Stefanini E, Gessa GL. Different affinity of cortical GHB binding sites in Sardinian alcohol-preferring (sP) and -non preferring (sNP) rats. Alcohol Alcohol. 1995;30:133–137
  21. Friedman J, Westlake R, Furman M. “Grievous bodily harm” (gamma-hydroxybutyrate abuse leading to a Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome). Neurology. 1996;46:469–471
  22. Fuxe K, Agnati L, Everitt BJ, Hokfelt T, Ljungdahl A, Perez de la Mora M. Action of beta(4-chlorphenyl)GABA, gamma-hydroxybutyrolactone, and apomorphine on central dopamine neurons. Adv Biochem Psychopharmacol. 1977;16:489–494
  23. Gallimberti L, Spella MR, Soncini CA, Gessa GL. Gamma-hydroxybutyric acid in the treatment of alcohol and heroin dependence. Alcohol. 2000;20:257–262
  24. Galloway G. Heroin withdrawal precipitated by non-medical use of naltrexone. Am J Psychiatry. 1993;150:347–348
  25. Galloway GP, Frederick SL, Staggers FJ. Physical dependence on sodium oxybate. Lancet. 1994;343:57
  26. Galloway GP, Frederick SL, Staggers FE, Gonzales M, Stalcup SA, Smith DE. Gamma-hydroxybutyrate (an emerging drug of abuse that causes physical dependence). Addiction. 1997;92:89–96
  27. Gerra G, Caccavari R, Fontanesi B, Marcato A, Fertonani AG, Maestri D, et al. Flumazenil effects on growth hormone response to gamma-hydroxybutyric acid. Int Clin Psychopharmacol. 1994;9:211–215
  28. Gerra G, Caccavari R, Fontanesi B, Fertonani AG, Maestri D, Avanzini P, et al. Naloxone and metergoline effects on growth hormone response to gamma-hydroxybutyric acid. Int Clin Psychopharmacol. 1995;10:245–250
  29. Gessa G, Vargiu L, Crabai F, Boero G, Caboni F, Camba R. Selective increase of brain dopamine induced by gamma-hydroxybutyrate. Life Sci. 1966;5:1921–1930
  30. Gessa GL, Agabio R, Carai MAM, Lobina C, Pani M, Reali R, et al. Mechanism of the antialcohol effect of gamma-hydroxybutyric acid. Alcohol. 2000;20:271–276
  31. Hajra, E., Rosen, M., McMahon, T., Hameedi, F., & Kosten, T. (1995). The effect of gamma hydroxybutyric acid (GHB) on naloxone precipitated-opiate withdrawal. In L. Harris (Ed.), Problems of Drug Dependence, 1994: Proceedings of the 56th Annual Scientific Meeting, The College on Problems of Drug Dependence, Inc. (p. 102). Rockville, MD: National Institute on Drug Abuse.
  32. Hechler V, Gobaille S, Bourguignon JJ, Maitre M. Extracellular events induced by gamma-hydroxybutyrate in striatum (a microdialysis study). J Neurochem. 1991;56:938–944
  33. Hechler V, Gobaille S, Maitre M. Selective distribution pattern of gamma-hydroxybutyrate receptors in the rat forebrain and midbrain as revealed by quantitative autoradiography. Brain Res. 1992;572:345–348
  34. Hechler V, Peter P, Gobaille S, Bourguignon JJ, Schmitt M, Ehrhardt JD, et al. Gamma-hydroxybutyrate ligands possess antidopaminergic and neuroleptic-like activities. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1993;264:1406–1414
  35. Howard SG, Feigenbaum JJ. Effect of gamma-hydroxybutyrate on central dopamine release in vivo (a microdialysis study in awake and anesthetized animals). Biochem Pharmacol. 1997;53:103–110
  36. James C. Another case of gamma hydroxybutyrate (GHB) overdose. J Emerg Nurs. 1996;22:97;[letter]
  37. Lammers GJ, Arends J, Declerck AC, Ferrari MD, Schouwink G, Troost J. Gammahydroxybutyrate and narcolepsy (a double-blind placebo-controlled study). Sleep. 1993;16:216–220
  38. Lane RB. Gamma-hydroxy butyrate (GHB). J Am Med Assoc. 1991;265:2959
  39. Levy MI, Davis BM, Mohs RC, Trigos GC, Mathé AA, Davis KL. Gamma-hydroxybutyrate in the treatment of schizophrenia. Psychiatry Res. 1983;9:1–8
  40. Louagie HK, Verstraete AG, De Soete CJ, Baetens DG, Calle PA. A sudden awakening from a near coma after combined intake of gamma-hydroxybutyric acid (GHB) and ethanol. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol. 1997;35:591–594
  41. Louwagie, P. (1997). “Rape drugs” turning up at college bars, parties. The Times Picayune, New Orleans.
  42. Luby S, Jones J, Zalewski A. GHB use in South Carolina. Am J Pub Health. 1992;82:128;[letter]
  43. McCabe E, Layne E, Sayler D, Slusher N. Synergy of ethanol and a natural soporific-gamma hydroxybutyrate. Science. 1971;171:404–406
  44. Morgenthaler J, Joy D. Better Sex Through Chemistry. Petaluma, CA: CERI and Smart Publications; 1995;
  45. Nissbrandt H, Elverfors A, Engberg G. Pharmacologically induced cessation of burst activity in nigral dopamine neurons (significance for the terminal dopamine efflux). Synapse. 1994;17:217–224
  46. Ross TM. Gamma-hydroxybutyrate overdose (two cases illustrate the unique aspects of this dangerous recreational drug). J Emerg Nurs. 1995;21:374–376
  47. Roth RH, Giarman NJ. Gamma-butyolactone and gamma-hydroxybutyric acid I (distribution and metabolism). Biochem Pharmacol. 1966;15:1333–1348
  48. Roth R, Giarman N. Natural occurrence of gamma-hydroxybutyrate in mammalian brain. Biochem Pharmacol. 1970;19:1087–1092
  49. Rumigny J, Maitre M, Cash C, Mandel P. Regional and subcellular localization in the rat brain of the enzymes that can synthesize gamma-hydroxybutyric acid. J Neurochem. 1981;36:1433–1438
  50. Sanguineti V, Angelo A, Frank M. Ghb (a home brew). Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse. 1997;23:637–642
  51. Schulz SC, van Kammen DP, Buchsbaum MS, Roth RH, Alexander P, Bunney WJ. Gamma-hydroxybutyrate treatment of schizophrenia (a pilot study). Pharmacopsychiatria. 1981;14:129–134
  52. Scott, J. (1997). VSU coed warned to guard against “date rape” drug. Valdosta Daily Times, Valdosta, GA.
  53. Scrima L. Gamma-hydroxybutyrate (GHB) treated narcolepsy patients continue to report cataplexy controlled for up to five (5) years. Sleep Res. 1992;21:262
  54. Scrima L, Hartman PG, Johnson FJ, Thomas EE, Hiller FC. The effects of gamma-hydroxybutyrate on the sleep of narcolepsy patients (a double-blind study). Sleep. 1990;13:479–490
  55. Sériès F, Sériès I, Cormier Y. Effects of enhancing slow-wave sleep by gamma-hydroxybutyrate on obstructive sleep apnea. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1992;145:1378–1383
  56. Serra M, Sanna E, Foddi C, Concas A, Biggio G. Failure of gamma-hydroxybutyrate to alter the function of the GABAA receptor complex in the rat cerebral cortex. Psychopharmacology (Berlin). 1991;104:351–355
  57. Snead OC. Gamma-hydroxybutyric acid in subcellular fractions of rat brain. J Neurochem. 1987;48:196–201
  58. Snead OC. Relation of the [3H]gamma-hydroxybutyric acid (GHB) binding site to the gamma-aminobutyric acid B (GABAB) receptor in rat brain. Biochem Pharmacol. 1996;52:1235–1243
  59. Snead OC, Bearden LJ. Naloxone overcomes the dopaminergic, EEG, and behavioral effects of gamma-hydroxybutyrate. Neurology. 1980;28:636–642
  60. Snead OC, Hechler V, Vergnes M, Marescaux C, Maitre M. Increased gamma-hydroxybutyric acid receptors in thalamus of a genetic animal model of petit mal epilepsy. Epilepsy Res. 1990;7:121–128
  61. Stell JM, Ryan JM. Ecstasy and neurodegeneration (gamma-hydroxybutyrate is a new recreational drug that may lead to loss of consciousness). Br Med J. 1996;313:424
  62. Takahara J, Yunoki S, Yakushiji W, Yamauchi J, Yamane Y. Stimulatory effects of gamma-hydroxybutyric acid on growth hormone and prolactin release in humans. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1977;44:1014–1017
  63. Tunnicliff G. Sites of action of gamma-hydroxybutyrate (GHB), a neuroactive drug with abuse potential. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol. 1997;35:581–590
  64. Vickers M. Gamma-hydroxybutyric acid. Int Anesthesiol Clin. 1969;7:75–89
  65. Xie X, Smart TG. Gamma-hydroxybutyrate depresses monosynaptic excitatory and inhibitory postsynaptic potentials in rat hippocampal slices. Eur J Pharmacol. 1992;223:193–196a
  66. Xie X, Smart TG. Gamma-hydroxybutyrate hyperpolarizes hippocampal neurones by activating GABAB receptors. Eur J Pharmacol. 1992;212:291–294b

PII: S0741-8329(99)00090-7

Alcohol
Volume 20, Issue 3 , Pages 263-269 , April 2000